Save
The Akha: Hmong
Christianity
Hmong Christianity: Conversion,
Consequence, and Conflict
By Vayong Moua
St. Olaf College; Northfield, Minnesota
1995
Introduction
Nothing in this world can rip people apart... like religion. Nothing
in this world can unite people... like religion. People have poured
out their most intense animosities... for their religion. People
have found extraordinary strength to forgive and care... in their
religion. Religion releases our most extreme and deepest emotions
(for those who are religious). It is the most powerful force on
this earth because it penetrates all aspects of culture.
The Hmong are perhaps undergoing their most drastic cultural and
religious change ever. In the inquiry about the Hmong, most scholars
have focused only on the cultural or economic aspects of the Hmong.
With the myriad of issues facing the Hmong, it's understandable
to see a focus on our economic, youth, and political issues. Yet
while enthusiastic research and study are being done in those
areas, I believe that we are overlooking the impact and direction
of Christianity in our culture. Culture and religion are deeply
meshed together and it is a hazard to concentrate only on one
and not the other. Especially in the Hmong culture, the two are
interwoven to the point that distinction is not clear. Religion
and culture are interdependent and greatly influence each other.
This is exactly why it's extremely important to address how Christianity
has affected the Hmong culture.
Some people say Christianity has scarred the Hmong forever and
others say it has saved us forever. Whether we acknowledge it
or not, conflict has arisen in the culture with the introduction
and growth of Christianity. Tensions run and continue to build
between the animists and the Christians on practicing and viewing
traditional animist rituals. Regardless of the different opinions,
I think all sides can agree that Christianity has revolutionized
who we are and consequently affects what we will become as people.
Christianity has contributed to sweeping changes in many spheres
of the Hmong culture. It has altered, compromised, and even eliminated
some rituals. Christianity has brought about a shift in hierarchy
and has affected the leadership, gender, and age roles. Such changes
have caused disagreement and division among the Hmong. This has
resulted in tearing some families, friends, and clans apart. We
are seeing a dichotomy that branches out and away from each other,
rather than branching up and together. Due to the emergence of
this cultural crisis, it is my hope and intention to identify
the reasons for conversion, expose the cultural changes, and address
the conflict. To me, the Hmong are people who cherish the values
of peace, unity, and harmony. These values seem to have dissipated
in the relationships between some Hmong Christians and Hmong animists.
We should once again strive to preserve these core values.
This paper is more than an academic exploration about change in
our culture! This is a call among our people to re-evaluate our
values. This is a plea to reconcile and respect differences to
halt the manifestation of further conflict. This is an order to
expand our paradigms (without surrendering who we are) and listen
to one another. Change is imminent...peace is not!
Conversion
In 1899, Protestant work began in the area of Zhaotong in Northeastern
Yunnan with the Tua Hua(greater flowered) Hmong (Tapp, 1989).
This initial contact was lead by the Englishman named Samuel Pollard
of the London Missionary Society (Tapp,1989). Pollard came to
the Hmong in China at a time of severe economic and social deprivation.
He interceded the Hmong in the aftermath of two rebellions (1797
and 1856) "which resulted in the mass migration of Hmong throughout
China and into Yunnan and Tongkin" (Tapp,1989). Everywhere, tensions
between the Hmong and the Majority Han and Li landlords erupted
because of heavy taxes and high rents. Economically and politically
crippled, the Hmong were desperate and eager for recovery.
Christianity and Pollard offered resources that were beneficial
to the Hmong (considering the circumstances). Pollard "campaigned
for the land rights of dispossessed Hmong tenants and initiated
mass smallpox vaccinations" (Tapp,1989). Pollard also took it
upon his duty to "enlighten" the Hmong by reforming traditional
Hmong culture. Pollard burned to the ground enticing places for
courting couples, integrated Western games, competitions, and
athletics to Hmong festivals (Tapp,1989). He conducted mass conversions
that were " the rule rather than the exception," and " above all
he invented the first script for any Hmong language, a romanization
in which the Bible was eventually printed" (Tapp,1989).
This leads us to the first motivation for conversion to Christianity.
To convert to a different religion, the Hmong must be driven by
more than material needs alone. Granted, the social and economic
situations were key factors, but the focal point in conversion
lies in "the desire for literacy"(Tapp,1989). Since the Hmong
have always been the minority in terms of political status and
population, literacy was an avenue to gain power. I think it can
be expressed in this equation: Christianity = literacy = communication
= power! Their minority status would be lessened with the ability
to read and write. Christianity offered a way out of poverty through
education and literacy.
A startling awareness about the lack of a written history hits
us when we face Christianity. Christianity has a text reference
(Bible) to preserve and uphold Christian morals and beliefs. It
is a source of history, folklore, and spirituality. The Hmong
too yearned for their own Bible. In the Christian context and
Bible, Hmong people could find people and circumstances that they
could relate and identify with. I believe that the Hmong people
paralleled themselves with the people of Israel. Like the Israelites,
the Hmong were poor nomadic people who were constantly under the
political and social oppression of the dominant society. The Israelites
were the "chosen people" who lived under the wing and protection
of God. With the similar circumstances as the Israelites, the
belief that an omnipotent God would save them is especially appealing
to the Hmong. Some Hmong could see themselves as "true" Christians
and have further included themselves in the people of God. This
phenomenon leads us into the second motivation for conversion
to Christianity.
Theirs a unique and striking relationship between Christianity
and Hmong Animism. In Hmong folklore, theirs is a legend of lost
writings and books. This is the story:
Long ago the Hmong lived on the north side of the Yellow River,
but the conquering Chinese came and drove them from their lands
and homes. Coming to the river and possessing no boats they debated
what should be done with the books, and in the end they strapped
them to their shoulders and swam across, but the waters ran so
swiftly and the river was so wide, that the books were washed
away and fishes swallowed them.
This is the story. When the British and Foreign Bible Society
sent the first Gospels and these were distributed the legend grew
--- the once upon a time lost books had been found, found in the
white man's country, and they told the incomparable story that
Jesus loved the Hmong. Only the imagination can conceive what
this meant to these hillmen, some of whom traveled for days to
view the books (Tapp,1989; W.Hudspeth,1937).
In the minds of many Hmong, the Bible was the "lost writings."
This is extremely vital in understanding how Christianity manifests
itself from this point on in the Animist context. With the belief
that the Bible pertained specifically to them, the Hmong centralized
Christianity around themselves. The second motivation for conversion
lies in the belief that Christianity parallels with the Hmong
legend of Hua Tais and 'Lost books.'
What is created is a messianic animist religion! Its animation
is exemplified in the Paj Cai revolt. The Paj Cai revolt of 1918-21
is the earliest recorded Hmong rebellion, which the Hmong fought
against the ruling regime of French Colonial Laos (Tapp,1989).
This revolt was inspired by tax levied on opium products by the
Tai officials and French. Paj Cai was a Vwj orphan who claimed
to receive direct orders from "Huab Tais or legendary messianic
hero who resisted the Chinese a number of times but finally was
tricked into defeat and slain, and is said to be born from a mystical
union between a human virgin and a boar (Tapp,1989). The blending
of Christianity and Animism is obviously apparent with this legend.
Paj Cai lead his Hmong soldiers into battle believing that the
bullets of the French would not leave the barrels of their riffles;
a young woman accompanied them with a "magical" apron that would
catch the bullets that were released (Tapp,1989;Savina,1924).
This revolt relied on the belief of physical protection from a
spiritual force...a messiah.
In 1949, Hmong Messianic movements sprouted up again in Laos with
the activation of Protestant missionary work (Tapp,1989). In a
month of missionary contact, approximately a thousand Hmong converted
to Christianity," and these mass conversions followed the announcement
by a female shaman named Po Si about the imminent return of the
Hmong Huab Tais or 'Emperor' "(Barney,1957). At this time, many
Hmong prophets claimed to be Jesus himself (Smalley,1956). A Hmong
movement known as the 'Meo Trinity' cult arose, which was focused
on three Hmong men claiming to be the father, son, and Holy Spirit.
They went from village to village imitating missionaries, burning
animist alters, and even performing exorcisms. The 'Meo Trinity'
was finally fragmented when the 'Holy Spirit' jumped off a mountain
ledge believing he would turn into a dove (Barney,1957). Also,
with the Vietnam War at hand, messianic myths flourished with
vigor. A story circulated that Christ was about to return wearing
American cloths in a jeep and distributing riffles(Tapp, 1989;Garret,1974).
One can not help wondering how this 'prophecy' influenced the
power of General Vang Pao? Another prophecy was made by the prophet
Yaj Soob Lwj, who announced the imminent arrival the Hmong Messiah
for September 15, 1967 (Tapp,1989; Lemoine,1972). Yaj Soob Lwj
claimed to be revealed this revelation through a dream. Again
in Thailand during the early 1960's, a mass movement was caused
by the rumor of the birth of the Hmong 'King.' However, this Hmong
'King' was "told to eliminate all foreigners" and lead to anti-missionary
attitudes (Tapp,1989). Therefore, it resulted in Hmong burning
missionary homes, threatening missionaries, and threatening even
converts (Tapp,1989; Heimbach,1979). Ironically, Christianity
internalized into the Hmong culture (in this situation) caused
the rejection of itself. Hmong messianism took on a life of its
own and represents a complex reaction against missionary influence.
The merging of Christianity and Hmong Animism was "an attempt
to control an alien belief system by internalizing it and making
it one's own" (Tapp,1989). In the words of Pollard,"Poor, simple,
misguided people, one can't even smile at their mislead enthusiasm"
(Tapp,1989). My question to Pollard is who is responsible for
this "misguided enthusiasm?" The accusation that Hmong were solely
"rice bowl" Christians is not a not an in depth view because "it
ignores the complexity and the dynamic nature of Hmong spiritual
beliefs, practices, and culture (Winland,1992)."
Why was Christianity so effective in producing Hmong converts(in
Laos)? I've mentioned the desire for literacy and the parallel
to Hmong legend, but there are more factors that account for conversion.
Despite the rejection of missionaries by some religious radicals,
missionaries still had a profound affect on conversion. Christianity
did so well because of its aggressiveness in advertisement and
endorsement (Lee,7-17-95). French missionaries used many tactics
to attract and recruit Christians. They showed films, gave out
Bibles, visited village homes, and gave out flyers about Christ
(Y.T.Moua,7-12-95). Missionaries exposed their beliefs to the
masses and converted in masses. Generally, Hmong converted in
groups, such as families, villages, and clans (Tapp,1989). If
the head of the household converted, then usually the rest of
the family converted. If the village head converted, then usually
the village converted. If the clan leader(s) converted, then usually
the clan converted. The respect and following of authority and
leaders in the Hmong culture is greatly responsible for mass conversion.
Missionaries brought with them western technology in medicine
and tools, which were favorable and partly responsible for many
conversions . Many Hmong fell ill to the harsh environment and
lack of vaccinations. The sicknesses were blamed on bad and evil
spirits (Y.K.Moua,7-13-95). Since missionaries provided the medicine,
they were credited for spiritually and physically healing the
sick. Because of the high success that western medicine brought,
many Hmong believed that Christianity destroyed and protected
them from evil spirits. They associated the healing power with
the missionaries and not the medicine itself.
The disagreement among some Hmong families with Animist practices
and fear of animist beliefs also influenced conversion. In Hmong
Animism, if a person is sick or has had a recent health problem
it is believed that it was caused by evil spirits. Therefore,
those who are sick are not allowed to enter the house of others.
For example, an animist family visited my home and the husband
would not allow his wife to enter my home even though she is whole
heartily welcomed. The wife just recently had a miscarriage, so
the husband feared spreading and polluting my house with evil
spirits. Some Hmong families felt this practice was discourteous
and not hospitable to sick friends and relatives (Y.K.Moua,7-13-95).
Yet they were animists and felt obligated to practice the religion.
Christianity offered the belief in one god and eliminated 'natural'
spirits of the world. Without 'natural' and evil spirits, then
sick families and friends could always enter homes. In Hmong Animism
theirs a complex realm of spirits in the environment, animals,
ancestors, and present living people. Hmong Animism is dependent
on a stable relationship with spirits that could harm you. It
requires appeasement of spirits through rituals and sacrifices.
Christianity is a religion that has a belief in supreme protection
from an almighty god; This aspect of Christianity appealed to
the Hmong, because then the spiritual world was simplified to
two major powers...God and Satan only. Thus, those who opposed
these aspects of Hmong Animism and felt secure from Christianity
converted.
When we focus on America we find differences for conversion with
the different waves of Hmong arriving. The majority of the first
wave of Hmong came to the United States through Christian church
sponsorships. Many Hmong families felt obligated to convert to
show appreciation and respect for helping them come over. Church
sponsors aided in providing housing, allowance, clothing, furniture,
and many other material goods. Many Hmong saw the church as a
social service and economic aide. However, it's also important
to note that most churches indiscriminately contributed help to
Hmong Christians and non-Christians.
The first wave of Hmong was composed mostly of those who were
young and connected to the CIA. In America, when this wave needed
spiritual rituals, they had few shamans around to conduct them
since they were still back in Thailand and Laos (Lee,7-17-95).
They also lacked the knowledge themselves to practice the rituals,
and therefore sought out western medicine and Christianity (Y.K.Moua,7-13-95).
If people were sick, they turned to a doctor (not a shaman). If
they were worried, they prayed instead of sacrificing an animal.
Lack of traditional knowledge and shamans directed many Hmong
to Christianity.
For those who did practice Hmong Animism, they found difficulties
in conducting animal sacrifices because of legal issues and the
high cost of animals. Still, animal sacrifices are conducted underground
and are still practiced at large by the animist community. In
Laos, many families had their own animals to sacrifice, but here
they had to find farmers willing to sell animals. This creates
a new expense for the Hmong. For those who perceived this as an
inconvenience, Christianity lingered as an option.
The more recent waves of Hmong faced different circumstances when
they came to America. More and more sponsorships became the responsibility
of relatives already here in America and not the church. Hmong
families sponsored their own extended families over. Incoming
Hmong were less affected by Church sponsorships. However, the
church had become Hmong operated and took on a strong role in
conversion. The Hmong Church provides social activities, a sense
of solidarity, and networking. The Hmong church has expanded and
grown into many denominations including Lutheran, Catholic, Methodist,
Baptist, and the largest group Hmong Alliance (approx. 2,500 in
Twin Cities) (Tai,2-8-93). Hmong Christianity is no longer only
a religious entity, it has become a social institution. As an
organized group of Hmong Christians, Christianity gained recognition
and influence within the mainstream and Hmong community. Structure
and organization lead to more conversions.
Many of these later wave Hmong found themselves completely surrounded
in a Christian context. They found that some relatives who came
earlier have converted, Hmong churches have been established,
peer groups at school and work were mostly Christian, and the
country was seen as a Christian nation. Being Christian was perceived
as being more American, which in turn would ease the adaptation
process to the new culture. Christianity is also seen as a tool
to integrate into the mainstream society (Y.K.Moua,7-13-95). Keep
in mind that Hmong tend to convert in masses and that definitely
affected the decisions of Hmong non-Christians enveloped in Christian
surroundings. When your family, clan, and/or country changes...what
do you do? Conversion was a social "advancement."
I believe that the prime factor for converting to Christianity
in Laos and America lies in the economic, time, and energy efficiency
in conducting Hmong traditional ceremonies. Christianity eliminated
the payment of a bride price and animal sacrifice. The editing
of these rituals greatly reduced the time, money, and labor. There
is no "hassle" in negotiating a bride price. Fewer people are
necessary to help conduct, cook, and aide with practicalities.
At funerals, the reciting of long intricate songs paying attribute
to ancestors and natural spirits is eliminated. For a traditional
marriage, the parents and extended families play a magnificent
role in the ceremony, whereas in Christianity mostly the pastor(priest)
conducts the ceremony (Vue-Benson, 7-10-95). Christianity cut
the time consumed to less than half of what Hmong Animism required.
Weddings that took more than a day could be cut to less than a
day, and funerals that lasted for several days could be cut to
two days. These reformed rituals would reduce the economic cost
substantially. Conversion becomes extremely attractive when considering
this kind of "benefits" and makes life's events considerably more
convenient. Conversion equals simplicity and convenience (Lee,7-17-95;
Y.K.Moua,7-13-95; Vue-Benson,7-10-95; Y.T.Moua,7-12-95). When
considering mass conversions with the notion of following the
leader, sincerity of faith is brought to question. Bea Vue-Benson,
a Hmong pastor, is concerned about this issue and exclaims," It
scares me that people are converted in such massive groups. I
think some of those people are converted because of peer pressure"
(Vue-Benson,7-10-95)! How much did pressure affect the rates of
conversion? This leads us into a philosophical inquiry about whether
Christianity was imposed or willed upon the Hmong.
To better understand this issue, we need to examine the nature
of missionary work with the Hmong. Why did missionaries come to
the Hmong? It is not merely exposure of Christianity that are
the intention and hope of missionaries. Theirs a "higher" goal
which is to bring forth more Christians into the world. Missionaries
preach about Christ, his ways, and his coming (Lo,7-10-95). More
so, Missionaries preached about Judgment Day (Apocalypse) and
the consequence of not believing in the Christian God...which
is Hell! Missionaries used "rationality" in their recruiting methods
by saying such things as " your friends and relatives converted
why don't you?" Missionaries also had material goods (food, clothing,
and medicine) on their side to find acceptance. Mr. Muaj Lo, a
Hmong Christian and former missionary, says that "people can say
no if they don't want anything to do with Christianity" and that
it's "really the choice of the individual to embrace God" (7-10-95).
Indeed, it is a choice, but we also have to consider what kind
of options did missionaries offer. If you believe in what the
missionaries believe, then you can go to Heaven. Likewise, if
you don't believe in what they say, then you get to go to Hell.
The point I'm trying to make is where do we draw the line between
exposure and pressure? There is absolutely nothing imposing about
trying to expose one's religion so others can learn and understand
that particular religion. There is nothing wrong with trying to
help people see your point of view. However, it does become detrimental
and imposing when one uses scare tactics and aggressive persuasion.
I'm not arguing that the Hmong were imposed upon by Christianity...only
the Hmong people can answer that for themselves. What I'm saying
is that some missionaries created little space for Hmong to move.
Above all though, the Hmong made the final decision to convert
or not.
In addressing the reasons for conversions, we also have to consider
that some Hmong did convert because they accepted Christ as their
savior. Some Hmong believe sincerely and are drawn to Christianity
for purely spiritual reasons. Faith and genuine belief are also
reasons for conversion. I would not be serving justice to Christians
if I did not acknowledge a theological motivation for conversion.
Consequences and Change
So far, we've explored the reasons and circumstances surrounding
the conversion of Hmong to Christianity. No doubt, Christianity
has left deep impressions and has molded the Hmong culture into
a form it has never had before. What has resulted because of conversion?
What type of cultural, social, and religious changes have occurred?
When the Hmong initially converted, they were mostly either Catholic
or Protestant. Most of the first converts were Catholic instead
of Protestants. This is because " Hmong who become Protestants
are compelled to renounce all of their old religious practices:
instead of being an additive element like Catholicism, Protestantism
completely replaces animism"(Chan, 55). Being Catholic or Protestant
determined the flexibility and practice of ceremonies. Catholicism
allowed the practice of traditional rituals as long as it was
"in the name of God." For example, Catholicism allows Hmong to
do the khi tes ritual which is a blessing ceremony. In this ceremony,
friends and relatives tie white strings to the one(s) being blessed.
Usually to be blessed with many children, money, success, or health.
Hmong Catholics do this blessing in the name of God. Protestantism
allowed no compromise or room for traditional practices. It depends
on which denomination of Christianity the Hmong belongs to that
determine their practice of traditional rituals. When some Hmong
converted to Christianity the culture underwent sweeping changes.
In particular, Christianity has affected two extremely important
ceremonies of an individual's life...marriage and funeral. " The
payment by a groom's family of a bride price to the bride's parents,
arranged marriage, bride kidnapping," polygamy, " and the tradition
of girls marrying within a year or two of reaching puberty are
frowned upon" and deemed uncivilized by the Church (Chan,55).
The traditional ways of courting, eloping, and negotiating has
been denounced. In addition, some Hmong Christians also either
substituted the consumption of alcohol to pay respect to relatives/
ancestors with non-alcoholic beverages or eliminated the whole
ritual at weddings. As mentioned before, the time needed to conduct
weddings were reduced. The wedding becomes more couple-oriented
than family oriented (Vue-Benson,7-10-95). Thus, marriage has
become more westernized.
For funerals, any notion or involvement of an ancestral or natural
spirit has been eliminated and deemed sinful by Hmong Christians.
Traditionally at funerals, a shaman will summon the dead's spirit
and guide it back to all the places it has been as a living person.
Following this, someone will tshuab qeej (play Hmong instrument)
to repeat the ritual but instead the spirit is lead with music.
They will tshuab qeej to notify the spirit that their friends
and relatives have arrived to visit and invite the spirit to eat
(Y.K.Moua,7-10-95). Christians do not practice "calling" spirits
and ancestors to guide the dead into the underworld. Apart but
similar to funerals, Hmong Christians do not ua neeb or hu plig
because of the non-Christian spirits involved. Ua neeb is generally
a ritual to spiritually and physically heal someone who is sick
and to spiritual protect a person or home through a shaman's appeasement
with spirits. This animist ritual is also used for psychic purposes
to help find lost people. Hu plig is generally a ritual to consult
the spiritual realm through a shaman to call a missing spirit
back to an individual. The shaman will enter the spiritual realm
to debate, bargain, and seek answers from the spirits. Hmong Christianity
has rejected ua neeb, hu plig, spirit calling (at funerals), and
tshuab qeej (at funerals) on the basis on being unholy.
Christianity has shuffled the hierarchy of power and the leadership
structure of the Hmong. Traditionally, the elderly males have
the dominant role in conducting rituals because of their experience,
seniority, and knowledge of procedure. In Hmong Christianity,
the power and leadership has shifted to the younger, skilled,
educated, and Biblically versed male (mostly). Community decisions
traditionally are made by the clan leaders, but within Christianity
influential decisions are made by the heads of the church (pastors
and committees). Hmong Animism never had a structured or organized
system of leaders. It has no text of reference, committees, boards,
non-profit organizations, charity funds, or communicate to the
masses. It focuses mostly on a Shaman who is a healer and mediator
between the spiritual realm and earth. Christianity has created
a religious institution that operates politically, depends on
funds, and addresses itself to the community at large. In Hmong
Christianity, religion has become organized and leadership is
no longer kinship or elderly based.
The roles of Hmong women have changed within the Christian context.
In Christianity, women find a more active and critical role through
participation. Women have more liberty and contribution to the
community because they can participate in prayer, singing, and
committees (Vue-Benson,7-10-95). Pastor Vue-Benson supports this
statement and exclaims," I can read the Bible just as good as
any man. I have access to the word of God. We(men and women) can
all go to church. Worship space is ours...all ours! We are there
together"(7-10-95). Hmong women have the power to even be a pastor
(not a priest) to lead a congregation. They can also have women's
choirs and organizations. Given they are literate in either Hmong
or English, Christianity's beliefs and scriptures are accessible
by women and men alike. Christianity is a religion that all who
believe can create an intimate and personal relationship with
a god. Unlike Hmong Animism, only the Shaman has access to the
spirits and spiritual world. This aspect of Hmong Animism limits
direct participation with the spiritual world to only the Shaman.
Thus, limiting the role of women and men. However, woman can be
shamans as well in Hmong Animism. In comparison to Hmong Animism,
Christianity has given women more opportunities for participation,
leadership, and expression. Christianity is still by no means
a liberal belief system for women, but does offer more potential
than Hmong Animism for women to empower themselves.
Perhaps no one's role has been more transformed and affected than
the shaman's. Traditionally, the shaman has the role of a physician,
psychiatrist, and religious person. They were upheld with profound
respect and status. Christianity brought in the role of a pastor/priest
who fulfilled the spiritual and psychological needs of people.
More so, Western medicine fulfilled the medical and healing needs
of the Hmong. In the conversion to Christianity, it is the shaman
who is most marginalized. Shaman's services are in the greatest
competition with Christianity. They have been the target of conservative
Christians and accused of "devil" worshiping, witchcraft, and
savagery. I asked a shaman how she felt and she replied," I'm
not hurt by what they say. I'm not discouraged (Lee,7-17-95).
Mrs. Lee went on to share a personal experience of lost respect.
Her and a friend, both of who are shamans, were in the company
of Christians when an "incident" erupted; "Those whom ua neeb
can go home and starve," said the Christians. Mrs. Lee replied,"
If you go to heaven, then you go your own way. Why did you say
that to me? Did you come directly from the womb of God? Why did
you say that now? Let us go our own way! We are of only one kind
and world; Let us all take care of it together," and then all
was silent (Lee,7-17-95). I was curious as to how Christians view
Shamans and realized that answers vary depending on denomination
and personalities. As a Christian, Mr. Muaj Lo believes that a
shaman has no place in his life at all (7-10-95). Furthermore,
he says that a "shaman has a place in another religion. Christianity
doesn't give shamans any status of any kind. Yet, they have their
own place in their own right" (Lo, 7-10-95). In a sense, the Hmong
shaman has been distanced from his/her own people because of Christian
beliefs. The opinions of Christians about shamans range from respect
and no belief to no respect and belief. In my eyes, the shaman
remains as a precious and beautiful aspect of our culture.
The social activities and participation dynamics have been affected
as well by Christianity. Who people gather with for social and
recreation have become more determined by their religious affiliation.
Christians tend to bond to Christians, and Animists tend to bond
with Animists in all aspects of their lives. With few exceptions,
the social activities have been based on congregation and religious
beliefs. This focuses in on a living and growing conflict.
Conflict
The cultural changes that have been brought forth have been drastic
enough to cause conflict between Hmong Christians and Hmong Animists.
All the new changes also brought division and difference between
Christians and animists. In marriage, the "majority of conflict
concerned the refusal to pay bride wealth at weddings, resulting
in a tendency towards endogamy along lines of religious beliefs,
and a consequent division of sub-clans, by faith, along kinship
lines (Tapp,1989)." Today, most Hmong Christians tend to marry
other Hmong Christian. It has become a "qualification" in a mate
for the more conservative Christians. For funerals, some Christians
will not attend the loss of a friend or relative because of the
traditional rituals performed. Those who do attend select carefully
not to come during a ritual. If they do intercede during a traditional
ritual, they will not enter but will usually contribute financially
to the family. Tension arises because debates often occur at such
ceremonies about which religion is "true." Even if offense is
unintended, the Christians may be interpreted as being arrogant
and disrespectful to the dead and the dead's family because of
their distant behavior. Conflicts over funerals also arise when
the dead's family is already split between religions. The conflict
is over how to conduct the funeral...Christian or animist? For
example, when my aunt died their was debate over what kind of
funeral should be conducted. My father is Lutheran, one uncle
is a shaman, one uncle is a Hmong Alliance Christian, and one
is an atheist. In a disagreement of this magnitude nobody walks
away without getting wounded. As a result, the decision was made
totally irrelevant to religion. My aunt had a Christian funeral
that was decided by seniority...my dad is the oldest. The conflicts
over funeral procedures continue today as an extremely sensitive
and reactionary issue in the Hmong culture.
The conflict in the leadership sphere is focused on the break
down of seniority status, elderly respect, and kinship solidarity.
For Christians, the old and traditional Hmong are no longer the
point of reference, consultation, or dialogue in the occasion
of difficult decisions. Age no longer is a key attribute of leadership
or respect. Respect belongs to the "proven" leaders who are qualified
through speech, vision, and motivation. In essence... a skilled
preacher. Hmong are beginning to identify themselves primarily
with their congregation instead of with their clan. Denominations
are becoming what the clan use to be; that is identification of
ideology, history, and reputation. Traditionally, family is the
number one value of life. For Christians, their allegiance to
the family(extended) is diminishing as duty to the church calls.
Naturally, conflict will arise since the traditionalists feel
devalued and the Christians feel traditionalists don't understand
the relationship between God and humans. As a result, theirs further
distance and less family association within families with split
religions.
As we look at the conflict psychologically, we see that both sides
feel legitimate in their beliefs and disrespected from the other
religious group. The Christians feel that they have been liberated
from the old and sinful ways of religious worship. They feel that
their god is the one and only "true" god, which is the most important
value in all of life. God is above friends, family, and even the
self. If a decision has to be made between family and God, then
God will always win the decision of Christians. They feel connected
to a higher source of love and life. Christians feel that Hmong
Animists are sinful and therefore choose not to participate in
"sinful" traditional rituals. Christians feel that Hmong Animists
do not respect that they have chosen a new way of life and religion.
They feel wrongly accused of not being Hmong. They defend themselves
as Hmong...just not traditional. Christians believe that being
Hmong doesn't mean being an animist. Bea Vue-Benson feels that
when she is in a Hmong non-Christian setting, she doesn't receive
reciprocity of respect and tolerance for her Christian beliefs.
She also feels that their is more pressure for Christians to accept
Hmong Animists than the animists to accept Christians (7-10-95).
In general, Hmong Christians feel disrespected, misunderstood,
and not tolerated by animists.
Interestingly, the Hmong Animists also feel disrespected because
of holding onto the traditional ways and not converting. They
feel that Christians look down upon them with arrogance and "holiness."
Mrs. Pa Ger Lee definitely feels that there are demeaning gestures
and words by Christians, but only by the ones who are ignorant
and inconsiderate. For the most part, she feels that tension is
there, but no one likes to address it unless the issue is forced
(7-17-95). Some Hmong Animists feel that Christians have lost
and forgotten the ways of being Hmong and have accused Christians
as no longer being Hmong. Animism has been the religion of our
ancestors for centuries and the logic is if a Christian rejects
animism, they also reject our past. Traditional rituals are important
to the animists not only for the spiritual aspect, but also for
the family unity it creates. These are events to solidify the
family as a group that grows and heals together. So when Christians
do not attend the rituals, relatives are offended and the sense
of togetherness is lost. The animists are especially hurt when
told that their practices are evil and will lead them to eternal
suffering in Hell. This represents a superior attitude that some
Christians have in regards of being the only "righteous" religion.
The conflict intensifies because it is more than a social clash;
It becomes a theological battle over the "correctness" of beliefs
and values. Hmong animists express that Christianity condemns
who they are and what they believe even though their religion
does not condemn Christianity. They feel that Christians are at
fault for disregarding their past, criticizing their present,
and condemning their future. In general, Hmong animists feel disrespected,
misunderstood, and not tolerated.
Sadly, the conflict is escalating and has been powerful enough
to break the bonds between friends and families. One incident
recorded in the Twin Cities tells that the Christian son of a
shaman would not allow his father to enter his home and bring
in his "paper money, incense, drums and other ceremonial instruments--tools
of his father's calling(Tai,2-8-93)." This is what the son told
his parents:
Christians are better. If you become Christians, you go to heaven.
You'll live with God. You'll live in paradise. Now, it's close
to the end of the world, and God only wants Christians...If you
don't become Christian, when the time comes, you'll burn and go
to hell...I worry that if you and my brothers don't become Christians,
we won't see each other forever (Tai,2-8-93).
He is the only son who never attends family gatherings even with
the assurance of no animism. He has not eaten a meal in his parent's
home since converting to Christianity(Tai,2-8-93). The mother
is pessimistic about her relationship with her son and says,"
If you hold onto your old beliefs and worship your ancestors,
if you die, you expect your sons to show up to mourn your death...
I feel very, very sad. When I die, my son may not show up (Tai,2-8-93)."
Family situations like this is scattered around the Hmong community.
Granted, most families have not segregated in terms like this
family, but many are feeling the tensions and attitudes among
friends and family. It is estimated that 40% of the 18,000 Hmong
in the Twin Cities are Christian (Tai,2-8-93). That is a fairly
even ratio and Christians are continuing to grow. With a Hmong
population nearly split down the middle in religion, I see a need
to magnify this issue before it fragments the Hmong even more.
Both sides feel the friction between them and some are trying
to reconcile their differences. Others continue to look the other
way and let it be. How and can this conflict among our people
be resolved? Religion relies on faith and devotion in one's spiritual
source, which leaves little room for compromise. Yet, Pastor Vue-Benson
believes that the Hmong can integrate aspects of Hmong animism
into Christianity. She believes that "Hmong confuse Christianity
with culture" and people believe that "if you become Christians,
everything has to be new. Why contain any past cultural practices?
At funerals, why burn paper money. That represents everything
that is Hmong and the old way (Tai; Vue-Benson, 2-8-93)." Pastor
Vue-Benson believes practicing traditional culture is acceptable
and you don't have to disregard all of the traditional ways (7-10-95).
For example, "if a church would be empty of pews, Hmong members
could sit on the floor. Or a church could incorporate a Hmong
New Year tradition of receiving blessings (Tai; Vue-Benson, 2-8-93)."
As long as there is no spiritual connotation, she believes practicing
traditional culture can be enriching. In her view, the Native
Americans are capable of merging animism with Christianity, then
so can the Hmong (7-10-95)!
Some Christians feel that the conflict can not really be resolved
and the best we can do is respect differences. Christian theologically
can not condone or practice any spiritual ritual that is non-Christian.
The whole belief system in Christianity centralizes around serving
and believing in only their god. That principle can not be altered
or compromised. Some Christians interpret that principle as including
observation and presence at non-Christian events. That is why
Hmong Christians choose not to attend and be present at traditional
events, which is the cause of major tensions. Yet, I believe that
if you are a truly "faithful" person and confident in your own
beliefs, then you should be able to enter any place on this earth
and not be feel "faithless." I have a friend who would not attend
a ua neeb ritual because he felt that his presence alone was "sinful"
and could have "sinful" consequences. He did not want to be responsible
for any "sinful" outcome that may result from his actions. I asked
him," What if you were a student studying abroad in a traditional
society in Africa. During your stay there, the natives welcomed
you by thanking the spirits in the trees. They performed animal
sacrifices to their gods to show their gratitude for your opportunity
to come. Furthermore, a child in the village was sick with malaria
and a shaman was summoned to heal the child with a spiritual dance.
All this time, you were present. Are you being "sinful" by being
there?" In the same sense, is it really sinful to observe and
learn from a different religion. Can't you be a student of your
own traditional religion? For example, a Christian can be present
at a hu plig ritual that a relative has invited her. That particular
Christian can attend to glean the richness of diversity in this
world. She can take with her a better understanding of how her
ancestors spiritually dealt with their problems. She doesn't have
to give up any beliefs or part of herself in a non-Christian setting.
She has only the opportunity to incorporate and add knowledge
of a different religion into her perception the world. The same
goes with the animist who goes to a church. The animist can go
to a church as an anthropologist studying the ways of Christianity
without betraying her own religious beliefs. What I'm expressing
is that "true faith" allows an individual to be anywhere, if the
individual is secure in her own value system and beliefs. This
message pertains to all people and not only Christians and animists.
If the Hmong can acquire an integrative and additive frame of
mind, then resentment, tension, and conflict would be at our mercy.
Conclusion
What lies ahead in the future of the Hmong? Some believe that
the Hmong will eventually become wholly Christian as the elderly
traditionalists die off with their knowledge. This could be true
because fewer shamans are rising or "called," their is a lack
of recorded traditional knowledge, and high rates of conversion
continue today. Yet, some feel that their will always be a constant
struggle between Hmong Christians and Hmong Animists because some
of the youth are revitalizing and preserving traditional Hmong
culture; At the same time as Hmong converting to Christianity
and organizing themselves institutionally. Will the dichotomy
diverge further apart? Regardless of what happens, whenever a
culture adopts and tries to replace a religion...volcanic emotions
will arise. The conflict is still developing and we should not
wait until it peaks to call attention to the conflict. The urgency
is now and today, not in the aftermath.
The Hmong is dividing like an impregnated ovum! Lines of division
are being drawn and walls are being built to highlight our differences.
Their is a culture gap between the Hmong and mainstream America.
Their is a culture gap between generations of the Hmong. Their
is a culture gap among the different refugee waves arriving in
America. Their is a culture gap between gangs and the whole society.
Their is a religious and culture gap between Hmong Christians
and themselves. Not surprisingly, their is a culture and religious
gap between Hmong Christians and Hmong Animists. No doubt, the
differences among our people are growing and we are changing as
a whole. We must not fear change or try to fight unavoidable conflict.
Yet, I believe that the religious conflict between Hmong Christians
and Hmong animists is unnecessary and resolvable if we can all
affirm our beliefs without limiting our vision of the world.
Lack of respect on both sides seems to be the cause of conflict
(Lo,7-10-95). But...can restoration of mutual respect alone resolve
this conflict? Very possible...but we must desire and demand more
than reconciliation. That only leads to stability and not progress.
Peace is necessary, but not the ultimate goal. This is my hope,
that we do more than acknowledge and respect differences among
ourselves! I hope that we can go beyond that level and appreciate
the different religions for what they express about humanity and
life. Their is a beauty waiting to be revealed about the diversity
of how creation, life, and death are viewed to those willing to
reach over and pull in.
In researching and writing this paper, I've learned a tremendous
amount about the transformation of the Hmong. I was motivated
to write this because of the lack of address and recognition of
Christianity's impact on our people. It grows within the Hmong
and infiltrates many components of our culture. The effects of
Christianity are profound, yet often disguised and dormant in
the minds of people. The conflict in religion has been overshadowed
by our social and adaptive conflicts. I realize that a paper like
this is only touching the surface of the water. Yet, I hope that
this can serve as a trampoline to create further dialogue and
discussion for addressing the religious conflicts in the Hmong
community. This paper is a blend of my ethnographic research and
my personal philosophy. It refuses to be distant and objective
to the readers. I hope my opinions have been stated and heard.
Anthropology is not effective without passion.
Where are the bridges in this community of islands? Our connection
is being Hmong! Before we are Christians or animists(whether we
acknowledged it or not)...we are Hmong! So...what does being Hmong
mean? To me, Hmong means strength, vigor, peace, and perseverance
through unity. I say, embrace and recapture our essence.
References
1) G.L. Barney, "The Meo--an Incipient Church," Readings in Missionary
Anthropology 4,2 (1957), pp. 31-50.
2) Bea Vue-Benson, Lutheran Pastor, Graduate of St. Olaf College
and Northwestern Seminary, Major: Women's Studies/ Religion, resides
in Minneapolis,MN (7-10-95).
3) Hmong Means Free: Life in Laos and America, S.Chan, Temple
Univ. Press, Philadelphia, (1994).
4)Pa Ger Lee, Shaman, resides in Eau Claire, Wi (7-17-95).
5) Muaj Lo, Supervising Court Interpreter, Graduate of Dartmouth
College, Major: Asian Studies/Chinese Lit. and Culture(Pre-Med),
resides in St. Paul, MN (7-10-95).
6) Yong Kay Moua, City Intern Coordinator, resides in Eau Claire,
Wi (7-13-95).
7) Yong Thao Moua, Shaman/student, former P.O.W., resides in Eau
Claire, Wi (7-12-95).
8) W.A. Smalley, "The Gospel and Churches of Laos," Practicing
Anthropology Vol.III, (1956), pp.45-57.
9) W.S. Tai,"Hmong families torn by collision of old and new,"
Star Tribune, (2-8-93).
10) N. Tapp,"The Impact of Missionary Christianity Upon Marginalized
Ethnic Minorities: The Case of the Hmong," Journal of Southeast
Asian Studies 20,1 (National University of Singapore 1989),pp.70-95.
11) D.N. Winland, "The Role of Religious Affiliation in Refugee
Resettlement: The Case of the Hmong," Canadian Cultural Studies
24,2 (1992).
Bibliography
1) Hmong: Cultural Conflict and Adaptation, Trueba, T. Henry,
The Falmer Press, Bristol, PA (1990).
2) J.J. Lucke,"Hmong Identity and Religion: Maintaining While
Changing," (1992).
3) Rev. D. Taillez, "A New Heart: Hmong Christians in America,"
Migration World 21,2/3 (1993).
4) K. Thao, "Letter to Dr. Hendricks Requesting Funding for Research
on the Development of the Hmong Church," (1989).
5) C. Williams, "Culture and Religion: Areas of Conflict and Protection,"
Reasons for Living and Hoping, (1988) pp. 65-8.
6) D.N. Winland, "Christianity and Community: Conversion and Adaptation
among Hmong Refugee Women," Canadian Journal of Sociology (1994).
The views and opinions expressed in this page
are strictly those of the page author. The contents of this page
have not been reviewed or approved by the University of Minnesota.
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